Status of trade in hawksbill turtles

Status of Hawksbill Turtle trade:
A review of the regional wider Caribbean and global trade,
including domestic and non-shell products

 

INTRODUCTION

The Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata is one of six species of sea turtle occurring in the Caribbean and its populations have been, and continue to be, impacted by a wide variety of threats. These include loss of nesting beaches, degradation of marine habitat, by-catch in net and line fisheries, and exploitation for subsistence and commercial use. This paper considers the threat of exploitation and reviews the regional wider Caribbean and global trade in Hawksbill Turtles, including domestic trade and trade in non-shell products.

Any future resumption of international trade in Hawksbill Turtle products is likely to be dependent on the efficacy of trade controls within consumer and supplier States. Attached as an annex is a review of the current state of controls for Hawksbill shell in Japan.

HISTORY OF HAWKSBILL TURTLE EXPLOITATION AND TRADE

General history of Hawksbill Turtle exploitation and trade

Hawksbill Turtles have traditionally been exploited primarily for their shell and there has never been a significant international trade in other products from this species (though domestic use of various products and derivatives exists). A market for tortoiseshell derived from the carapace and marginal scales of Hawksbill Turtles has existed for many centuries. A single turtle yields between 0.75 and 1.5 kg of tortoiseshell in the form of 13 carapace scutes, with an average yield of around one kilogramme. The 27 small marginal scales are less in demand (Groombridge and Luxmoore, 1989).

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the main markets for Hawksbill shell were in Europe and North America, where it was used for such items as combs, brushes, spectacle frames and luxury goods. Trade to Asian markets existed, primarily to Japan, but also to the Republic of Korea and Taiwan, Province of China. With the advent of plastics, the need for tortoiseshell for utilitarian purposes declined, although it retained a place at the high end of the luxury market (Groombridge and Luxmoore, 1989).

Groombridge and Luxmoore (1989), in a CITES-commissioned review of the world status, exploitation and trade of Green Turtles Chelonia mydas and Hawksbill Turtles, listed the following countries with Caribbean coastlines as having evidence of exploitation of adult Hawksbill Turtles: Anguilla, Antigua & Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, British Virgin Islands (BVI), Cayman Is., Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, El Salvador, French Guiana, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela.

Other countries where evidence existed of offtake of adult Hawksbill Turtles were Australia, Brazil, Myanmar, Cape Verde Is., Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Fed. States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sao Tome and Principe, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Seychelles, USA, Western Samoa, and Yemen (see Groombridge and Luxmoore, 1989, table 11).

Regional history of Hawksbill Turtle exploitation and trade in the wider Caribbean

Direct exploitation has had a particularly significant impact on many turtle populations in the Caribbean. Turtles and their eggs have been exploited since time immemorial by virtually all Caribbean peoples. Turtle meat and eggs have provided a supplemental source of protein for subsistence fishing and coastal communities in the Caribbean. Other turtle products include oil, calipee (cartilage), leather, shell and curios. Turtles continue to be taken incidentally in fisheries throughout the Caribbean and are often used domestically for all their products.

Large-scale commercial harvest and trade began in the 1950s and 1960s when international markets for shell from Hawksbill and other turtles opened or expanded. Major markets included the USA, Europe and Japan until domestic legislation and international regulations greatly restricted, and eventually closed, the legal trade in these places.

Trade records indicate that Japan legally imported a total of 641 531 kg of Hawksbill shell from 1970 to 1986, over half of which originated from Caribbean and Latin American countries (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987). Panama and Cuba were the major exporters, followed by the Cayman Islands and Haiti. These four countries/territories accounted for about 75% of Japan's imports from the region. From 1970 to 1986, Panama was second only to Indonesia as the largest single exporter of Hawksbill shell to Japan. Panama supplied Japan with 98 679 kg during this period, which accounted for 15% of Japan's total bekko imports and functioned as an entrepot for shell obtained throughout the region (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987). Cuba was the world's third-largest supplier of Hawksbill shell to Japan during this same period, with exports of 97 852 kg, or 15% of the total trade (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987). By 1986, trade from Panama and the Cayman Islands had ceased, rendering Cuba and Haiti the most important regional suppliers of Hawksbill shell to Japan (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987).

From 1970 to 1986, Haiti supplied Japan with 24 793 kg of Hawksbill shell, accounting for almost 4% of Japan's total shell imports. From 1976 to 1986, as CITES controls gradually reduced or eliminated trade from other traditional sources in the region, imports from Haiti (a non-CITES nation) increased by about 12% (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987). Imports increased further to an average of 2.7 metric tonnes (t) per year from 1985 to 1990. After the 1991 coup d'état in Haiti, Haitian exports to Japan dropped to 178 kg in 1991 itself, and halted completely in 1992 (Ottenwalder, 1996b). Also from 1970 to 1986, the Cayman Islands constituted the sixth-largest supplier of Hawksbill shell to Japan. The Caymans supplied 30 350 kg, representing almost 5% of Japan's total imports during the period (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987).

Japanese Customs data for 1970-86 show that a total of 8839 kg of Hawksbill shell had been received from the Bahamas; 4366 kg from the Dominican Republic; 14 285 kg from Jamaica; 44 kg from Mexico; 3267 kg from Puerto Rico; and 234 kg from the Turks and Caicos Islands. The US Virgin Islands (USVI) and BVI have apparently never been involved in large-scale commercial export of sea turtles and sea turtle products.

Overview of global trade in the 1990s

In many parts of the world, egg and meat harvesting is carried out at a subsistence level by coastal inhabitants for local and medicinal use. Past or present levels of collection and trends are impossible to determine on anything more than a local scale for some sites. Egg collection is usually combined with the capture of nesting females (Groombridge and Luxmoore, 1989).

The Hawksbill Turtle has been listed in the appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since the Convention entered into force in 1975, with the Atlantic population (including that in the wider Caribbean region) included in Appendix I. In 1977 the entire species was included in Appendix I. Japan acceded to CITES in 1980, but at the time took a reservation (legal objection) on the Appendix I-listing of this species. In the 1970s and 1980s, Japan imported hundreds of tonnes of Hawksbill Turtle shell (known as bekko), approximately half of which originated in the Caribbean, to supply its domestic carving industry. However, legal international trade in Hawksbill Turtles on a commercial scale effectively ended when Japan withdrew its reservation to the listing of the Hawksbill Turtle in July 1994. Only Cuba and St Vincent, which are both in the Caribbean, still hold reservations on the species, but there has been no trade from these Parties reported for several years and there is otherwise no legal international trade in specimens or products of Hawksbill Turtle for commercial purposes involving CITES Parties.

The levels of trade in Hawksbill Turtle products and trends in this trade are very poorly known, and no comprehensive review of the trade has been undertaken since the publication of Groombridge and Luxmoore’s 1989 review. Localized use of non-shell products appears to be widespread but unquantified. Use of shell appears to be driven by local markets, purchase of curios, and local commercial trade. For instance, in 1993 and 1995, TRAFFIC, in collaboration with the Centre for Natural Resources and Environmental Studies of the University of Hanoi, undertook a study of the exploitation of Hawksbill Turtles in Vietnam. Vietnam had not appeared as a prominent supplier of shell to the Japanese tortoiseshell industry, despite the species having been heavily exploited for shell, food and medicinal ingredients. The study focused on Kien Giang Province, the Con Dao Islands, and Nha Trang, areas where turtle harvesting was known to occur. The study found that Hawksbill Turtles were being extensively exploited in Vietnam, through egg collection and the capture of both juveniles and adults. The turtles are killed, sometimes after a period of captive-rearing, for use largely in the production of jewellery, decorative curios, and for traditional medicine ingredients (Duc and Broad, 1995).

Table 1. International trade data for Hawksbill Turtles 1988-1998

Gross reported exports of Hawksbill Turtles and products. 1988-1998

UNIT	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998
Bodies	99	90	100	126	138	103	76	137	86	46	8
Carvings	131	128	130	1072	1408	395	131	264	98	128	55
Derivatives	48	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Eggs	94	0	20	56	93	6	9	0	0	200	0
Feet	0	0	7	0	4	0	0	0	0	0	0
Garments	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	0
Handbags	6	0	2	1	4	1	0	0	0	0	0
Live specimens	0	180	162	2	18	2	18	9	208	5	1
Meat	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Oil	31	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Pieces	0	0	0	0	4	0	0	0	0	0	0
Shells	2812	1113	114	3035	3740	132	49	333	492	296	5
Shoes	16	0	2	3	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Skins	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Skin/leather items	53	94	246	220	138	77	73	27	72	104	0
Skulls	0	0	0	0	1	0	24	2	2	0	0
Scientific specimens	11	12	110	8	219	551	846	1089	1040	680	9
Tissue cultures	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	21	0	0
Trophies	1	3	1	2	0	2	2	0	0	5	0
Unspecified	0	30	0	339	622	102	11	0	7	10	0
Watchstraps	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0

Gross reported imports of Hawksbill Turtles 1988-1998

UNIT	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998
Bodies	99	90	100	126	138	103	76	137	86	46	8
Carvings	131	128	130	1072	1408	395	131	264	98	128	55
Derivatives	48	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Eggs	94	0	20	56	93	6	9	0	0	200	0
Feet	0	0	7	0	4	0	0	0	0	0	0
Garments	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	0
Handbags	6	0	2	1	4	1	0	0	0	0	0
Live	0	180	162	2	18	2	18	9	208	5	1
Meat	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Oil	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Pieces	0	0	0	0	4	0	0	0	0	0	0
Shell	2812	1113	114	3035	3740	132	49	333	492	296	5
Shoes	16	0	2	3	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Skin/leather items	53	94	246	220	138	68	73	25	70	104	0
Skin pieces	0	0	0	0	0	9	0	3	2	0	0
Skulls	0	0	0	0	1	0	24	2	2	0	0
Scientific specimens	11	12	110	8	219	551	846	1089	1040	680	9
Tissue cultures	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	21	0	0
Trophies	1	3	1	2	0	2	2	0	0	5	0
Unspecified	0	30	0	339	622	102	11	0	7	10	0
Watchstraps	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0

Source: CITES annual report data as compiled by UNEP-WCMC.

Recent data from law enforcement actions provide some information on illegal trade routes and sources:

· In January 1992, Cuban authorities seized 1033 kg of Hawksbill Turtle shell when it arrived in Cuba, from Mexico, inside unaccompanied baggage on a flight in transit to Japan.

· In January 1994, 24 kg of raw Hawksbill shell purchased in the Dominican Republic was seized from two Japanese businessmen at Narita International Airport in Tokyo.

· In March 1994, 587 kg of raw Hawksbill shell purchased in the Dominican Republic and sent to Japan by air cargo was seized from a Japanese Hawksbill shell dealer at Itami Airport in Osaka (TRAFFIC East Asia, 2000).

· In April 1994, the US District Court of Puerto Rico charged 12 nationals with violations of the Endangered Species Act and other laws relating to the take, possession, transportation and sale of Hawksbill Turtles and Green Turtles.

· In June 1995, Customs officials seized 40 kg of raw shell plates at Nagoya in a shipment sent by international mail from the Dominican Republic.

· In August 1995, the Investigation Bureau of the Ministry of Justice in Taiwan, Province of China, seized 21 stuffed Hawksbill Turtles that had been imported from mainland China.

· Also in August 1995, Japanese Customs officials seized 3083 kg of raw shell plates at Osaka Seaport, in an attempt to import shell from Indonesia illegally.

· In March 1996, Japanese Customs officials seized 115 kg of raw shell plates coming from Singapore, packed in five suitcases carried by a courier.

· In August 1997, Japanese Customs officials seized 31.5 kg of raw shell plates at Kansai International Airport, in Osaka; the shell had been bought in Singapore.

· In April 1998, Japanese Customs officials seized 119.6 kg of raw shell plates at Narita International Airport, arriving from Singapore.

· In May 1998, Japanese Customs officials seized 9.7 kg of raw shell plates at Fukuoka International Airport, arriving from Singapore.

· In September 1998, Japanese police and Customs authorities seized 66 kg of Hawksbill Turtle shell at Nagoya airport that were being smuggled from Singapore.

· In January 2000, Hawksbill jewellery that had recently been imported from Indonesia was seized from several shops in San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Sources: TRAFFIC Bulletin 14(3), 16(1) and 17(3); CITES Secretariat, 1996; TRAFFIC East Asia, 2000; TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, in litt. 2000; J. Picon, in litt. 2000.

Recent surveys of wildlife markets in Asia indicate that Hawksbill Turtle shell products are still easily obtainable (see Duc and Broad, 1995; Martin, 1997; Wenjun et al., 1996).

Status of trade in the Caribbean region in the late 1990s

In 1999, TRAFFIC North America initiated a report of the exploitation and trade of sea turtles in the Caribbean, focusing firstly on the northern Caribbean island nations and territories of the Bahamas, Cayman Islands, BVI, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Turks and Caicos Islands and USVI, as well as the Caribbean coast of Mexico. The main object of the report is to identify, compile and summarize information related to the current legal and illegal markets for Caribbean turtles and turtle products and to document the extent to which turtles and eggs are being harvested in the region. The following information is derived from this report, which is currently in press.

Bahamas

Fishers interviewed reported that they would take turtles of any size and species opportunistically, when fishing for other species. Despite protection since 1986, Hawksbill Turtles are still killed for their meat in the Bahamas, and some Bahamians, particularly in the outer islands, reportedly prefer Hawksbill over Green Turtle meat (K. Bjorndal and S. Connett, pers. comm., 1999). Shells and scutes are occasionally found discarded, with the meat removed (K. Bjorndal, pers. comm., 1999).

Turtle carapaces are occasionally sold in outdoor markets in various parts of the country. In February 1999, in Harbour Island, Eleuthera, a researcher noted at least 25 Hawksbill and Green Turtle carapaces, mostly from juveniles, being offered for sale in a straw market (A. Bolten, pers. comm., 1999).

Nests are robbed and eggs are sold for USD5-6/egg in Abaco in 1999 (C. Laing, pers. comm., 1999), and poaching of Hawksbill Turtles in Bahamian waters by foreign vessels has been documented.

British Virgin Islands

The Islands' Green/Hawksbill Turtle fishery is centred in Anegada, which is thought to supply at least half of the annual catch. Though records have never been kept, the estimated Hawksbill catch declined from 400 in 1981, to 75 in 1985, to 32 in 1991 (Eckert et al., 1992). Conservation and Fisheries Department officials believe the number of animals harvested is much less today than it was a decade ago (B. Lettsome and K. Penn, pers. comm., 2000). An unquantified level of egg harvest has occurred for many years and continues today (Eckert et al., 1992; B. Lettsome, pers. comm., 2000).

During surveys of restaurants and retail outlets in March 1998 and January 2000 (during the open season for Hawksbill fishing), TRAFFIC researchers found turtle meat for sale in a few restaurants and food stores in Tortola and Virgin Gorda. Consumption of turtle meat on the islands is almost exclusively by indigenous people through the local harvest during the open season, with Green Turtle being the preferred species (B. Lettsome, pers. comm., 2000). In addition, sea turtle penis steeped in rum has been used as an aphrodisiac by older generations on the Islands (M. Hastings and B. Lettsome, pers. comms, 2000).

Green and Hawksbill shells have recently been sold locally, given away, or kept by fishers to be mounted and displayed in homes, bars, restaurants, and hotels (Eckert et al., 1992). Displaying carapaces in homes used to be a popular practice, but has diminished in the BVI in recent years. The handicraft industry which once manufactured jewellery and other items from Hawksbill shell declined noticeably in the 1980s and is virtually non-existent today (Eckert et al., 1992; B. Lettsome, pers. comm., 2000).

BVI fishers have been caught taking sea turtles illegally in the USVI, returning with them by boat to Tortola. Conversely, USVI fishers have been known to take turtles in BVI waters and return with them to St. Thomas (R. Boulon, pers. comm., 2000).

Imported Hawksbill shell items have been found on sale recently in the BVI. On 30 January 2000, TRAFFIC surveyed several tourist shops in Roadtown and Cane Garden Bay on Tortola. Of these, one shop in Cane Garden Bay had a Hawksbill shell jewellery box on sale for USD22.50. The box was illegally imported with many others aboard a cruise ship from the Dominican Republic.

Cayman Islands

Small numbers of sea turtles are thought to be taken each year in the Cayman Islands. Hawksbill Turtles, which have been traditionally fished in Cayman Brac, used to be processed and the shell exported while the meat was consumed locally. Cayman Brac residents are reported to prefer Hawksbill over other turtle meats (Wood and Wood, 1994; G. Ebanks-Petrie, pers. comm., 2000).

Cuba

Cuba has kept landing statistics for its sea turtle fishery (Green, Hawksbill, and Loggerhead Caretta caretta) since 1968, and has adjusted closed seasons to take account of the main months of egg-laying for each species since 1976 (Moncada Gavilan, 1998).

From 1968 to 1990 an average annual harvest of at least 4744 Hawksbill Turtles was officially recorded, with a minimum of 3198 in 1970 and a maximum of 6445 in 1985. Starting in 1990, as part of a fisheries rationalization programme, the Hawksbill fishery was phased down to its current level of fewer than 500 animals a year in total taken at two sites: Cocodrilos on the south-west tip of the Isle of Pines, and Nuevitas (Broad, 2000; CITES Proposal 11.40, 2000). Commercial exports of Hawksbill shell ceased in 1992 (IUCN/SSC and TRAFFIC, 1997).

The current sea turtle fishery uses 48 cm-mesh nets. There is a closed season of three months (1 May-31 July) coinciding with reported nesting of Hawksbills on the Isle of Pines. If the annual catch limit of 500 Hawksbills is met, the harvest at both sites is closed until the following season (Broad, 2000).

The primary motivation for turtle fishing in Cuba is the desire for meat for domestic consumption (Carrillo et al., 1999). According to Broad (2000) a small amount is retained at the fishery sites for local consumption, while the majority is distributed through the state fishery enterprise in each of two fishing districts.

The harvest of sea turtles and eggs by private persons was prohibited in Cuba in 1961. Illegal subsistence use is known to occur from time to time, but at low levels. Nests are reportedly poached on outlying islands (CITES Proposal 11.40, 2000).

Dominican Republic

Despite laws prohibiting their capture, killing, collection, and commerce from 1989 through 1990 (Decree No. 317 of 1989), and since 1996 (Decree No. 34 of 1996), sea turtles of all sizes and species have recently been taken by fishers in the Dominican Republic (Ottenwalder, 1996a). Ottenwalder estimated that 1000 to 2000 individuals were likely to be taken annually, with Hawksbills and Green Turtles thought to have comprised 70% of the total. Most turtles were reported taken in coastal waters by divers with spearguns and some were also taken incidentally in seine or gill nets and retained. Female turtles were taken on the beaches during the breeding season and eggs whenever possible. Adult males and females were reported to be caught in nets bearing wooden turtle-shaped decoys set in front of nesting beaches.

According to Ottenwalder (1996a), the Hawksbill is the species most valued by fishers in the Dominican Republic. The shell has been used extensively by the domestic carving industry. A school for handicraft artisans in Santo Domingo used to offer a specialisation in working Hawksbill shell into jewellery and other decorative items. Factories in Santo Domingo and artisans in coastal villages also produced Hawksbill spurs worn by roosters in cockfights. The use of such spurs was outlawed in 1997.

Six hundred kilogrammes of Hawksbill shell were reported by Ottenwalder (1996a) to have been used annually in the Dominican Republic. Raw shell from medium to large specimens was sold to local artisans and to local or foreign dealers to be exported illegally. Juvenile and sub adults are stuffed, as their scutes are too thin and small to be worked profitably. Stuffed Hawksbills sold for USD30-550, depending on the size.

In recent years, the Japanese Government has seized illegal shipments of Hawksbill shell that originated in the Dominican Republic (see General history of Hawksbill Turtle exploitation and trade).

The widespread sale of Hawksbill shell items and other turtle products has been well documented in Santo Domingo and a number of coastal developments. In November 1999, TRAFFIC North America surveyed over 90 shops and vendors catering for tourists in Santo Domingo, Boca Chica, La Romana, Puerto Plata, Playa Dorada, and Sosua. The majority of these sold Hawksbill carapace items. In addition, duty free shops in the international airport in Santo Domingo were observed to offer for sale large quantities of Hawksbill shell purses, jewellery, and other articles.

In the areas surveyed, a wide variety of items was observed, including purses (USD90-125); jewellery boxes (USD15-45); bracelets (USD12-25); earrings (USD5); rings (USD2); hair bands; hair clips and slides; combs; picture frames (USD45); serving platters (USD185); eating utensils; bowls; letter openers and cigarette cases (USD35).

In Santo Domingo, many of the shops surveyed also sold bottles of a rum drink containing pieces of fish, leaves, bark, and other ingredients to which dried sea turtle penis can be added (the drink is called damajuana or mamajuana). Shopkeepers explained that, as in BVI, turtle penis is touted as a male aphrodisiac.

Sea turtle eggs and meat are also believed by some to be sexual stimulants (Ottenwalder, 1996a). Ottenwalder reported a heavy demand for turtle eggs, and the price mark-up from the nesting beach to city markets was from USD5 to USD15 each. Turtle oil was also extensively marketed, most going to pharmaceutical companies for use in cosmetics (Ottenwalder, 1996a). Stalls in Santo Domingo sold a variety of natural products, such as oils, soaps, and creams, that purported to contain sea turtle. These were labelled aceite (oil) de carey and aceite de tortuga (USD19.35/litre).

Haiti

No information is available about the size of the turtle fisheries in Haiti, and official statistics on the number of turtles harvested for food and other uses do not exist (Ottenwalder, 1996b). Hunting methods in recent years have included the use of trammel nets, turtle decoys, harpoons, and spear guns (Ottenwalder, 1996b).

Haitian fishers are reported to fish for sea turtles in Dominican Republic waters from border towns on the southern and northern coasts. Sea turtle eggs are harvested and eaten, despite prohibitions. Seafood shops in Port-au-Prince sell meat and eggs when these are available.

Eggs are often fed to children, as they are believed to be a source of strength. Sea turtle penis is also considered an aphrodisiac in Haiti; it is added to a sugar cane-based drink (clairin) (J. R. Badio, pers. comm., 2000).

Small to large carapaces of Hawksbill and Green Turtles have recently been found readily available in markets and tourist shops. Fishers currently sell Hawksbills for USD1-2/turtle (J. R. Badio, pers. comm., 2000).

Jamaica

Sea turtles and their eggs are harvested in Jamaica despite protective legislation in effect since 1982. C. Moodie (pers. comm., 2000) estimated that as much as 40% of all sea turtle nests on mainland Jamaica, most of which are Hawksbill nests, are lost to poachers. R. Kerr Bjorkland and A. Donaldson (pers. comm., 2000) reported that nests lost to poachers on the near shore cays off Portland Bight may approach 80%. Haynes-Sutton et al. (1995) reported that most turtles encountered by fishers at sea or on the beaches were taken opportunistically.

Meat, eggs, and shell are traded illegally in Jamaica. Meat is used in soup or stew and sold as steak, while eggs are blended with wine, brandy, and beer to make sea turtle punch. Eggs are thought by some people to be an aphrodisiac. Sea turtle penis is sold by the inch and mixed with rum, wine, roots, oysters, conch, and other ingredients. Turtle penis was sold for up to USD1.75 per inch (2.5 cm) in 1992.

In January 2000, a TRAFFIC researcher surveyed over 160 beach vendors, craft markets, street-side vendors, small groups of tourist shops, and hotels on the northern tourist coast of Jamaica - in Negril, Montego Bay, and Ocho Rios - for Hawksbill shell products. Hawksbill shell items were openly sold, though not in large quantities. Items included earrings (USD5-15), bracelets (USD8), pins, hair slides, necklaces, combs (USD15), and other items. These items appeared to be intended for tourists from South and North America and Europe. One store in Montego Bay displayed a significant quantity of Hawksbill shell items acquired from one of the remaining private businesses in Jamaica with a shell stockpile.

Mexico

While some Hawksbill and other turtles and eggs have been reported taken illegally recently in the Yucatán Peninsula, the major nesting beaches are regularly patrolled and the level of take is not thought to be significant (M. Garduño-Andrade, pers. comm., 1999). Twelve of 710 Hawksbill nests were poached in Isla Holbox during the 1999 season. Twelve of 433 Hawksbill nests were poached in Celestún during the 1999 season, although this is a minimum number because beach monitoring started late in the season (E. Miranda, pers. comm., 1999). In 1998, the nine conservation camps in the State of Campeche lost 104 (3.7%) of the 2817 Hawksbill Turtle nests recorded, and 34 (5.1%) of the 670 Green Turtle nests recorded to poachers.The following year, 306 (7.7%) of 4020 nests recorded, of all species, were lost to poachers (INP/SEMARNAP, unpublished data, 1999).

Sea turtles have recently been taken as incidental catch, or periodically by fishers trying to compensate for a bad catch of their target species. The meat is most often consumed at home or sold to friends. Meat may occasionally be sold in local markets to trusted customers (V. Guzmán-Hernández, pers. comm., 1999). In the state of Campeche, meat sold recently for an estimated USD3.25/kg and eggs sold for between USD0.15 and USD0.50 each (V. Guzmán-Hernández, pers. comm., 1999). Turtles are often slaughtered quickly for their meat and the shell thrown into the sea to dispose of the evidence (V. Guzmán-Hernández, pers. comm., 1999).

Hawksbill shell products have recently been sold by vendors in some areas of the Yucatán. Illegal Hawksbill shell products were reported in 1998-1999 in Islas Mujeres, Cozumel, Playa del Carmen, and Cancun. Vendors in Isla Mujeres reported that the shell originated from Quintana Roo and that they carved it themselves. Several carvers in Cancun reported getting their shell from Campeche (Cantu and Sanchez, 2000).

In December 1999, a TRAFFIC researcher surveyed markets and shops in the cities of Cuidad Carmen, Campeche, and Mérida, and in the Mérida airport on the Yucatán Peninsula, as well as in a small area of Mexico City. Hawksbill shell products were documented in the form of earrings (USD5.40 to USD13.00), bracelets (USD1.95-10.80), rings (USD1.10-2.15), picture frames (USD51.30), crucifixes, salt shakers, bookmarkers (USD3), combs, hair bands, sweater pins (USD3), jewellery boxes (USD54), letter openers, fans, and guitar picks (USD5.40). Three of the eight shops in the Mérida international airport sold Hawksbill products.

Puerto Rico

Despite protective legislation in Puerto Rico, there has remained an unquantifiable but persistent demand for sea turtle products, especially meat and eggs. While most of the take is likely to be opportunistic or incidental, some people fish specifically for turtles by hand, using nets, and harpoons (C. Diez, H. Horta, M. Rivera, pers. comms, 1999). According to this source, female turtles are sometimes killed on nesting beaches for their eggs and meat, and nests are poached on several beaches around the island.

Although there are no complete data on take of sea turtles in Puerto Rico, one estimate is of 1000 to 1500 adult, sub-adult, and juvenile sea turtles poached annually for personal consumption or sale to restaurants, markets, and trusted individuals (S. Rice, in litt., 2000). Eggs of all species are collected for food (C. Diez, pers. comm., 1999; M. Rivera, pers. comm., 1999). Researchers in Humacao reported that all nests would be likely to be lost to poachers without consistent beach patrols (L. Montero-Acevedo, pers. comm., 1999).

A number of researchers reported finding Hawksbill carapaces in the last few years. In 1999, seven Hawksbill carapaces were discovered in a cave on Mona Island (C. Diez, pers. comm., 1999). In Humacao in 1999, a carapace washed up on shore, while another was found buried in the sand (L. Montero-Acevedo, pers. comm., 1999). The Culebra National Wildlife Refuge has also received reports from divers who have found Hawksbill Turtle shells underwater (T. Tallevast, in litt., 1999). In each of these cases, the carapaces were found intact, the meat having been removed, which indicates that the animals were killed for the meat and the shells left behind, usually hidden, in an attempt to avoid prosecution.

In 1999, there was a steady black market that was largely organized to fill existing orders from specific buyers (C. Carreon, C. Diez, L. Santiago and M. Rivera, pers. comms, 1999). Prices for meat and eggs reported to TRAFFIC ranged from USD0.50-5.00/egg and from USD6-15/ 0.45 kg for meat for all species (C. Diez, H. Horta and L. Santiago, pers. comms, 1999). While meat and eggs have not been seen on restaurant menus since the 1980s, they have recently been offered to specific customers in certain establishments in coastal areas, including Humacao, Fajardo, Lajas, Puerto Real, Joyuda, and Mayaguez, where the price for a sea turtle steak is approximately USD25 (C. Carreon, C. Diez, S. Rice and M. Rivera, pers. comms, 1999).

Shell jewellery is only occasionally found today in Puerto Rico. In January 2000, Hawksbill jewellery that had recently been imported from Indonesia was seized from several shops in San Juan (J. Picon, in litt., 2000).

Turks and Caicos Islands

Turtles are captured in small but unknown numbers for a domestic market for meat, which is cooked at home or in restaurants catering to local people. Green Turtle is preferred, but Hawksbill and Loggerhead are also eaten. Activists have worked hard to eliminate the sale of turtle meat in hotel and other restaurants frequented by tourists. Turtle carapaces were offered to tourists until about five years ago, however, this practice is reported very rarely today. Fishers from the Dominican Republic were reported to take Hawksbill Turtles in the Turks and Caicos; locals described how the carapace was heated and the scutes removed and then sent to the Dominican Republic (M. Fulford-Gardiner, C. Inghram and M. Taylor pers. comms, 2000).

US Virgin Islands

Despite protective legislation in the USVI, there has been a persistent demand for sea turtle meat and eggs. More poaching occurs on St. Croix than on the other islands, partly owing to a more depressed economy and a larger Hispanic population, which retains its cultural practices of eating eggs and turtles (Eckert, 1989; M. Evans, C. Farchette and Z. Hillis-Starr, pers. comms, 2000). Many of the poachers are in search of an immediate source of cash, and have often been charged with other violations such as assault and dealing in weapons and narcotics. Eggs are sold locally for USD1 each (M. Evans, pers. comm., 2000).

According to Z. Hillis-Starr (pers. comm., 2000), the only instance of egg poaching on Buck Island Reef National Monument in the last 13 years occurred when a tanker from the Dominican Republic grounded near the monument during Hurricane Hugo in 1989 - five Hawksbill nests were excavated when patrols were temporarily discontinued.

Poaching has been a traditional threat to the sea turtle nests on the East End beaches on St. Croix (Mackay and Rebholz, 1996), with up to one-third of the nests having been dug up or probed on Jack’s Bay in the early 1990s. Green and Hawksbill Turtle eggs and adults are frequently taken on Sandy Point after seasonal all-night patrols for Leatherbacks Dermochelys coriacea have ended (Boulon et al., 1996). Manchenil Bay and Ha’penny Bay beaches are also subject to moderate rates of poaching, owing to the fact that they are not protected and are easily accessed (J. Rebholz, pers. comm., 2000). Hawksbill shells have been found on beaches with the meat removed, which appears to indicate that the animals were taken for the meat only (Z. Hillis-Starr, B. Kojis and A. Mackay, pers. comms, 2000).

An apparently new trend involves influential residents on St. Croix who have begun placing orders for turtle eggs as a demonstration of their personal status and authority (M. Evans and C. Farchette, pers. comms, 2000). In the last seven years, prices for turtle eggs have risen from USD15 to USD55 per dozen eggs (M. Evans, pers. comm., 2000).

Fishers in Frenchtown, on St. Thomas, have traditionally harvested turtles and eggs and periodically poach them today in the USVI (B. Kojis, pers. comm., 2000), but more often travel to the BVI to take turtles (M. Evans, pers. comm., 2000). Fishers from the BVI have also been known to take turtles from St. John.

Regulatory frameworks governing international trade

Since the Hawksbill Turtle is listed in Appendix I of CITES, international trade in the species and its products is prohibited unless the purpose of trade is non-commercial. For such non-commercial trade to occur in accordance with CITES, a valid import permit and a valid export permit or re-export certificate are required.

Import permits may be granted when (a) the Scientific Authority of the country of import has advised that the import will be for purposes which are not detrimental to the survival of the species involved; (b) the Scientific Authority or the Management Authority is satisfied that the proposed recipient of a living specimen is suitably equipped to house and care for it; and (c) the Management Authority is satisfied that the specimen is not to be used for primarily commercial purposes.

An export permit may only be granted when (a) the Scientific Authority of the country of export has advised that such export will not be detrimental to the survival of that species; (b) the Management Authority is satisfied that the specimen was not obtained in contravention of the laws of the country for the protection of fauna and flora; (c) the Management Authority is satisfied that any living specimen will be so prepared as to minimise the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment; and (d) in the case of a species listed under Appendix I, the Management Authority is satisfied that an import permit has been granted by the country of import for the specimen.

Exceptions to these provisions may only be granted in accordance with the provisions of Article VII of CITES, and only then at the discretion of the Management Authority if the national laws allow it. This is limited to specimens which were acquired before the Convention entered into force, for personal or household effects, or for specimens bred in captivity, according to definitions adopted by the Conference of the Parties. The Management Authority is responsible for assessing whether such exceptions are justifiable on a case-by-case basis and issuing documentation as appropriate.

Parties are required to enforce the Convention, involving, inter alia, the national control of the legal international trade in CITES-listed species and the application of all measures to stop any illegal international trade in listed species.

Reservations

States party to CITES may enter reservations (legal objections) with respect to species listed in the CITES appendices, at the time the State accedes to the Convention, or during the 90 days after the adoption of an amendment to the appendices. States entering a reservation are treated as a State not party to the Convention with respect to trade in the species or part or derivative in question, until the reservation is withdrawn. However, Resolution Conf. 4.25 (Gaborone, 1983) recommends that any Party having entered a reservation with regard to the listing of a species in Appendix I or the transfer of a species from Appendix II to Appendix I treat that species as if it were listed on Appendix II for all purposes, including documentation and control. It also requests Parties having entered reservations to maintain statistical records on trade in the species in question and to include these statistics in their annual reports.

Proposals to amend the Appendix I-listing of Hawksbill Turtle

At the fifth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES (Buenos Aires, 1985), Indonesia and the Republic of Seychelles proposed the transfer of their populations of Hawksbill Turtle to Appendix II, but neither proposal was accepted.

At the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (Harare, 1997), Cuba proposed the transfer of its population of Hawksbill Turtle to Appendix II, subject to certain conditions. After considerable discussion of the proposal, a revised proposal was put forth, outlining a zero export quota for shells obtained from traditional harvest and ranching operations, pending a review of the situation at the eleventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties. In addition, the number of eggs to be taken for experimental ranching would be reduced by 50%, and a percentage of revenues from the sale of the shell stockpile would be used for Hawksbill Turtle studies, to be undertaken with other countries in the region. This revised proposal was rejected, following a secret ballot in which 55 votes were cast in its favour and 49 against, with seven abstentions (TRAFFIC, 1997).

At the eleventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES (Nairobi, April 2000), Cuba submitted two proposals, one of which was co-sponsored by Dominica, seeking to downlist the foraging population of Hawksbill Turtles in its waters to Appendix II. Cuba withdrew its co-sponsored proposal to trade in both its stockpile of nearly seven tonnes of Hawksbill Turtle shell and an annual quota of up to 500 Hawksbill Turtles, but continued to advocate its proposal for a single shipment of its stockpile of Hawksbill shells to Japan. The proposal was subjected to a lengthy debate before being defeated, by secret ballot, by a narrow margin. The Parties reopened the debate on Cuba's proposal on the last day of the meeting, in a plenary session of the meeting, with an amendment stating that trade would not take place until the control systems in Japan had been reviewed by the CITES Standing Committee. Various Parties opposed the proposal, noting that the Hawksbill Turtle is a migratory species and that a one-off sale could encourage other countries to stockpile shells. The amended proposal was again defeated by a narrow margin in a secret ballot (TRAFFIC, 2000).

REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS GOVERNING NATIONAL EXPLOITATION
AND TRADE IN CERTAIN CARIBBEAN STATES

International trade in sea turtles and products is prohibited, for the most part, in each of the eleven nations/territories examined in the TRAFFIC review, by virtue of their membership in CITES (only Haiti among the nations is not a Party to CITES, and while the territories are not Parties in their own right, they are responsible for implementing CITES) and/or enactment of domestic legislation prohibiting import and export.

Six of the eleven nations/territories examined by TRAFFIC in its review - the Bahamas, BVI, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Haiti and Turks and Caicos Islands - allow a harvest of sea turtles and, of these, only the Bahamas prohibits a harvest of Hawksbill Turtles. None of these nations/territories permits the harvest of eggs or nesting females of any sea turtle species. Domestic use and trade is regulated to varying degrees by these nations/territories. Only the BVI, Cayman Islands, Haiti and Turks and Caicos currently permit general domestic use and sale of Hawksbill Turtles if they are taken during the open season in accordance with applicable regulations.

Enforcement of the applicable harvest and trade controls varies widely throughout the region. The Bahamas, BVI, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and USVI reported cases in which persons had been charged with violations related to the take, possession, and/or trade of Hawksbill Turtles. The Dominican Republic reported a lack of personnel to control the sale of Hawksbill shell products in the country.

Bahamas

Since 1986, the Hawksbill Turtle has been fully protected in the Bahamas. Green and Loggerhead Turtles may be fished during an open season (1 April-31 July), as long as they are of the established minimum sizes (24 inch- (61 cm) carapace length for Green Turtles and 30 inch- (76 cm) carapace length for Loggerheads). No eggs and turtles of any species on beaches may be harvested (Fisheries Resources [Jurisdiction and Conservation] Regulations, 3 March 1986). Sea turtles of the minimum sizes and products thereof may be possessed and sold in the Bahamas during the open season, though Hawksbill Turtles and products may not be possessed or traded. No sea turtle eggs of any species may be traded or possessed. International trade in sea turtles and products, such as blood samples, is only occasionally allowed from the Bahamas for scientific purposes (M. Isaacs, pers. comm., 1999).

A private stockpile of an unknown quantity of Hawksbill shell is held by a former owner of a factory (closed down in 1987) that used to manufacture Hawksbill jewellery for the domestic market in the Bahamas and for export. Fisheries Department and CITES Management Authority officials are currently attempting to quantify the size of this stock (E. Phillips and M. Isaacs, pers. comms, 1999).

British Virgin Islands

Since 1987, the harvest of Green and Hawksbill Turtles over 20 pounds (9 kg) in weight has been allowed for four months of the year, from 1 December until 31 March (Turtles Ordinance Cap. 87 of 1959, as amended in October 1987). Eggs and turtles of any species on beaches may not be harvested at any time of year, nor may sea turtle eggs of any species be traded or possessed at any time of year. Sea turtles and meat may neither be possessed nor traded during the closed season (1 April-30 November). The possession, display and sale of other turtle products, such as carapaces, shell items and oil, are not specifically prohibited in the 1987 Ordinance and subsidiary legislation (Notice) of 1986, and it appears that their possession, display, and sale is legal year-round in the BVI. International trade in sea turtles and products has been prohibited since 1976, when all seven sea turtle species were included as endangered species in Schedule 1 of the Endangered Animals and Plants Ordinance Cap. 89 of 1976.

Cayman Islands

Since 1987, there has been an open season (October until April) for harvesting Green, Hawksbill, and Loggerhead Turtles of established minimum sizes (The Marine Conservation (Turtle Protection) Regulations). Turtles may be taken with nets only by licensed, traditional fishers for consumption within the Cayman Islands.

Cuba

Since 1995, Hawksbill, Loggerhead, and Green Turtles may be fished from only two locations, Isle of Pines (Isla de la Juventud) in fishing zone B (south-west) and Nuevitas in fishing zone D (north-east), from 1 August-30 April. Turtles must be of a minimum size of 65 cm straight carapace length (SCL). Up to 500 Hawksbills may be taken annually. The collection of eggs and hatchlings and destruction of nests of all species are prohibited. The possession, use and trade of sea turtles and products by private persons is prohibited.

The Cuban government has accumulated a marked registry of Hawksbill shell from their traditional harvest program since 1993. By April 2000, the Cuban stockpile will have reached approximately 6900 kg.

Dominican Republic

Since 1989, there has been a ban on the capture, killing, collection, and commerce of Green, Hawksbill, Loggerhead, and Leatherback Turtles, and their eggs and parts (Decree No. 317 of 1989; Decree No. 34 of 1996).

Haiti

Sea turtles may be harvested in Haiti except during the closed season from May to October. Hawksbill, Green, Leatherback, and Loggerhead Turtles are thought to nest in the country. Sea turtle eggs and female turtles on beaches may not be harvested (Fisheries Law of 27 October 1978). The export of sea turtle meat and shells, in absence of a licence from the Fisheries Service, has been prohibited since 1978. Haiti is not a Party to CITES.

Jamaica

It has been illegal to harvest sea turtles in Jamaica since 1982, when all native sea turtles were designated protected species under Appendix III of the Wild Life Protection Act of 1945. Take, possession, and sale of sea turtle eggs is prohibited. The export of unworked marine turtle shells, in absence of a licence, was prohibited in 1974. Since 1982, the possession of any native sea turtles or their parts has been prohibited. Although authorities report that sale of, and domestic and international trade in, sea turtles and their products is illegal (given the prohibition on possession), there is no specific provision prohibiting sale and trade of sea turtles under the current legislation, apart from the prohibition of sale of eggs mentioned above.

Jamaican authorities are aware of two privately held stockpiles of unknown quantities in the country. TRAFFIC researchers visited the owner of one of these, who reported holding 3000-3500 pounds (1365-1590 kg) of Hawksbill shell that was acquired before the export of unworked shell was prohibited in 1974. The owner of the stock operates a factory that previously exported shell and currently manufactures spectacle frames and jewellery for the domestic market. In 1990, the owner of the second stockpile applied to officials to export to Japan approximately 6000 pounds (2727 kg) of Hawksbill shell, which was reported to have been accumulated before 1982 from fishing grounds of the Cayman Islands, Nicaragua and Jamaica.

Mexico

The harvest of all sea turtles in Mexico and consumption, sale, or export of turtles and their products, was banned on 1 May 1990. Prior to this, several partial and total bans had been enacted since the early 1970s for the different species. The harvest of sea turtles on the Atlantic coast was prohibited in 1973, and the harvest of Hawksbills on the Pacific coast was prohibited in 1976.

Puerto Rico and US Virgin Islands

Harvest of sea turtles is illegal in Puerto Rico and the USVI. The Hawksbill was protected in 1973 with its listing as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act. It is prohibited to import, export, sell in interstate commerce, possess, transport, or sell sea turtles if illegally taken.

Turks and Caicos Islands

Hawksbill and Green Turtles weighing at least 20 pounds (9.1 Kg), or measuring 20 inches (51 cm) carapace length (neck scales to tail pieces) may be taken; any other turtle must weigh at least 20 pounds (Fisheries Protection Regulations 1976).

Trade issues for future consideration

Demand trends

It is difficult to estimate demand for turtle products. However, there is evidently a consistent and significant local demand for turtle meat, eggs, and shell for curios. The curio trade within some range States is still active and local products are finding their way into circulation internationally with tourists. As little is known quantitatively about the collective impact of the local demand for meat, eggs, and shell for curios, there is a need to assess this demand.

The bekko industry is still active in Japan, operating from existing stockpiles. These stockpiles will eventually be exhausted, but demand for legal sources of Hawksbill shell, if available, will continue. There is a need for a comprehensive understanding of the Japanese market and bekko industry to assess likely future trends in Japanese demand and to help track trends in illegal trade.

Controls in consumer States

Any resumption of international trade in Hawksbill Turtle products is likely to be dependent on the efficacy of trade controls within consumer States. For instance, at the eleventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES, Cuba’s final proposal concerning the transfer of its population of Hawksbill Turtle to Appendix II stated trade would not take place until the control systems in Japan had been reviewed by the CITES Standing Committee. A review by TRAFFIC of the current state of controls for Hawksbill shell in Japan is included as an annex to this document.

Ranching/closed cycle breeding options

Experimental ranching is underway in Australia, and there is interest in Cuba for this approach. Closed-cycle breeding has been tried in Japan to provide a local supply of shell. These options must be examined for future consideration.

Analysis of current regional legislation for trade impacts

A number of treaties, conventions and protocols apply to the exploitation, conservation and trade of sea turtles in the wider Caribbean region. There is a need to assess the interactions of these international instruments on trade.

Trade control capacity building in the wider Caribbean

There are a number of different approaches to Hawksbill Turtle trade controls in the wider Caribbean. There is a need to assess which controls are being effective and to ensure that the capacity of all countries and territories in the region is developed to a level that will prove adequate for Hawksbill Turtle management and conservation.

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Annex

Japan's Hawksbill shell trade control system

TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan

Introduction

Individual shell plates from the hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata are referred to as bekko in Japanese. Bekko crafts were introduced to Japan from China more than one thousand years ago while the domestic Japanese bekko industry was established during the Edo period, about 300 years ago. Historically, bekko was used for women’s hair ornaments and combs, and traditional musical instruments. Japanese craftsmen shape the dorsal, abdominal, and flank shell plates (Anon, 1991a).

In order to produce the desired effect in terms of colour, pattern and size, several shells are selected and the individual shell plates are then fused to produce the characteristic bekko colour patterns (Anon., 2000). This fusing is achieved with a combination of heat, water and pressure, but without the use of glue (Kaneko and Yamaoka, 1999). After the basic shape is secured, designs are carved and other materials are added to produce finished products (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987).

Legislation, enforcement, and penalties

International trade controls

Japan implements CITES through its Foreign Exchange and Foreign Trade Law (FEFTL) and its Customs Tariff Law. Japan acceded to CITES on 4 November 1980 but with a reservation on hawksbill. This reservation was withdrawn on 29 July 1994 (Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) Import Notice No.436, 20 July 1994).

Japan's annual import quota for bekko was 30 t from 1980 to 1989; 20 t in 1990; and 7.5 t from August 1991 to December 1992 (Anon, 1991b). Japan introduced an import quota of zero in January 1993 (Anon, 1993a). The commercial import and export of hawksbill has been prohibited under the terms of the Foreign Exchange and Foreign Trade Law since July 1994 (MITI, Import Annotation No.6-29, July 1994).

In accordance with the FEFTL, all imports or exports of CITES Appendix I specimens require a CITES permit from MITI. Violation of this law is punishable under the FEFTL and the Customs Tariff Law.

Domestic trade controls for intact specimens

Japan's domestic trade in CITES Appendix I-listed specimens is controlled under the Law for the Conservation of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (LCES), adopted on 5 June 1992. The LCES prohibits the sale, transfer and display for sale of species listed on Appendix I of CITES. Possession is not covered under the LCES. The 1992 LCES controlled trade in stuffed hawksbill specimens, but not carapaces or individual shell plates.

On 29 June 1994, the LCES was amended to cover certain specified parts and derivatives including ivory, monitor lizard skins, and bekko (Amended LCES, Law No.52), with the amendment entering into effect on 28 June 1995. Under the terms of the amendment, whole hawksbill carapaces are also covered under the LCES.

Article 12 of the LCES prohibits the sale, transfer and display for sale of stuffed hawksbills and hawksbill carapaces although, under Article 20, whole hawksbill shells which were imported legally before the reservation was withdrawn and which have been registered can be traded domestically.

The LCES outlines a system of registration cards for stuffed hawksbill turtles and for whole carapaces. Traders possessing registered stuffed hawksbills and whole carapaces are to keep registration cards for each specimen. An individual card is prepared for each specimen. Registration cards are issued by the Director General of the Environmental Agency (EA). Under Article 22 of the LCES, the sale of registered stuffed hawksbill, whole carapace, or cut shell plates from registered whole shells must be reported, and the card returned to the Director General of the EA within 30 days. The information is recorded in a database by the Japan Wildlife Research Center under the jurisdiction of the EA.

Violation of the registration scheme is subject to fines of up to JPY 1 million (approximately USD9,800 in 2000) or one year in prison (Article 58). A registration fee is charged of JPY 2,600 (USD25.50) per specimen of stuffed hawksbill or whole carapace. This system is applicable to all species of sea turtle (Table 5 of Cabinet Order 240).

Domestic trade controls for bekko

Dealer registration

Under the LCES, businesses engaged in the sale of raw bekko materials (not including whole carapaces or stuffed hawksbill) including importers, manufactures and wholesalers, but excluding retailers, must register with the Director General of the EA and the Minister of MITI. These businesses must provide their name, address, the types of item traded, and the date they started trading in raw bekko materials (Article 33-2).

Under Article 33-3 of the LCES, registered traders must maintain detailed records on raw bekko materials traded, noting the following information for each bekko sales transaction:

1) the date of each transaction;

2) if involving stuffed hawksbill, the specimen's registration card number;

3) the company name and address;

4) the quantity of raw bekko materials bought or sold, by shell part (dorsal, abdominal, and flank);

5) the total quantity remaining in stock.

Dealers are required to keep records for raw materials, i.e. scutes or shells only. They are not required to keep records of sales and transactions involving finished products (Anon, 1995).

Each registered bekko dealer is required to maintain a ledger for five years. Registered dealers are required to report sales at the request of officials from the Minister of MITI and the Director General of the EA (Article 33-5). Information from the ledgers of registered dealers is not stored in an electronic database.

Under Article 59 of the LCES, bekko traders who do not register with the Government are liable to fines not exceeding JPY 500 000 (USD4 900). Penalties for not keeping records or for entering false information in ledgers include the suspension of business for up to three months (Article 33-4). If the trader does not follow Article 33-4, the penalty is imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or a fine not exceeding JPY 500 000(USD4 900) (Article 59). Failure to provide reports on bekko trade is punishable by a fine of up to JPY 200 000 (USD1 960), as is refusing on-the-spot inspections by government inspectors (Article 62).

Although the LCES does not state a fixed reporting schedule, MITI currently requires that registered dealers provide copies of the complete ledger once a year. More frequent reporting could be requested by MITI if necessary (MITI Official, in litt., to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 21 March 2000).

As of December 1999, there were 234 registered bekko dealers (MITI Official, in litt.to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 13 January 2000), compared to 243 registered dealers in July 1995 (Kiyono, 1995).

Stock registration

Stuffed specimens and carapaces

As of December 1999, the number of registered whole hawksbill carapaces was zero while registered stuffed sea turtles numbered 135 (MITI Official, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 13 January 2000). Through the registration card system, dealers or individuals who registered are required to report sea turtles by Order and not by species. It is therefore not possible to identify stuffed sea turtles at the species level through the registration cards. According to one industry representative, currently, it is rare for stuffed hawksbill specimens, used primarily as wall hangings, to be disassembled for use as raw materials for bekko crafts (S. Terauchi, Japan Bekko Association, pers. comm. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, January 2000).

Bekko

Domestic law requires all those who wish to trade in bekko, excluding finished products, to register with MITI and the Environmental Agency (EA) and to declare bekko stockpiles. In July 1998, registered dealers reported total stocks of 102.73 t (MITI Official, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 13 January 2000), compared to stocks of 188.4 t in July 1995 (Kiyono, 1995). These figures do not include whole carapaces or stuffed turtles.

Domestic fishery controls

Japan is included in the northern end of the Hawksbill Turtle's Pacific distribution. The hawksbill nests on the beaches of Japan's southeastern islands, the Yaeyama Islands (Japan Fishery Agency, 1994). Japan's Fisheries Law regulates fisheries in Japan's coastal seas and also allows individual prefectures to establish marine fisheries adjustment regulations (Y. Kaneda, 1995). Currently, Japan's coastal seas are divided into 66 administrative areas. Under the fisheries adjustment regulations, it is prohibited to catch, sell or possess sea turtles in nine of these administrative areas (Japan Fishery Agency, 1998).

However, catch by licensed commercial fishers as well as for scientific purposes and captive breeding purposes is allowed in some areas. Okinawa and Kagoshima prefectures set catch quota for Hawksbill Turtles. The total combined quota was 78 specimens annually from 1995 to 1998. Actual combined annual catch was 51 in 1995, 70 in 1996, 64 in 1997, and 47 in 1998 (Okinawa Prefectural Government, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 25 February 2000; Kagoshima Prefectural Government in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 28 February 2000).

Potential future import controls

According to the supporting statement accompanying Cuba's proposals to transfer the Caribbean population of Hawksbill Turtle inhabiting Cuban waters from CITES Appendix I to Appendix II, (Proposals 11.40 and 11.41), if the proposal is accepted, import restrictions in Japan will be altered to allow the import of 6.9 t of raw bekko materials (Adapted from the Supporting Statement, Section 4.1.3, Management of shell in the importing country). The Government, in co-operation with the Japan Bekko Association (JBA), will undertake to stamp all shells newly imported from Cuba with a common non-reusable seal or label (MITI Official, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 21 March 2000).

This would make it possible to distinguish shells plates imported from Cuba from shell plates imported from other range states at auction. However, it would still not be possible to distinguish the source of bekko after processing or at the retail level. At this time, the Government has no plans to introduce further domestic trade control regulations within Japan.

Analysis of Japanese Customs statistics

Japanese Customs Statistics have recorded import data for hawksbill shell since 1950. Imports peaked in 1951 at 177 181 kg. From 1957 to 1978, imports into Japan ranged from 10 000 kg to 43 000 kg (Japan Customs Statistics, 1957-1978). Imports between 1970 and 1979 averaged about 38 700 kg per year. In 1973 and 1979, imports were particularly high at 73 206 kg and 63 555 kg respectively (Fig. 1). The sudden increase in volume in 1973 was stimulated by fears that CITES would impose trade restrictions. The 1979 increase corresponded to the coming into effect of CITES in Japan (Milliken and Tokunaga, 1987).

Figure 1 Import of hawksbill shell 1950-1998

Source: Japanese Customs Statistics 1950-1998

Japan's annual import quota for raw bekko materials was 30 t from 1980 to 1989; 20 t in 1990; and 7.5 t from August 1991 to December 1992. Japan introduced an import quota of zero in January 1993 (Anon, 1993a). Zero imports were recorded from 1993 to 1995. In 1996 Japan amended its HS Customs Code to include "hawksbill shells and waste thereof" under the category of "other" under the general heading of ivory, tortoiseshell, whalebone and whale bone hair, horns, antlers, hooves, nails, claw and beaks (HS Code: 050790090) (Anon, 1999).

Sources of Japan’s bekko imports prior to 1993 included Caribbean and Latin American countries, Asian countries, East African countries, and countries in Oceania and the Pacific regions. From 1970 to 1979, Panama, Indonesia and Cuba were major exporting countries. From 1980 to 1992, Cuba, the Solomon Islands and Jamaica were the major exporting countries.

The Hawksbill Turtle shell crafting industry

The industry

As explained earlier, under the LCES, businesses engaged in the sale of raw bekko materials (not including whole carapaces or stuffed hawksbill) including importers, manufactures and wholesalers, but excluding retailers, must register with the government. In December 1999, a total of 234 shell companies, manufacturers and wholesalers were registered with MITI and the EA (MITI Official, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 13 January 2000).

In 1992, the Japan Bekko Association (JBA) was established under the jurisdiction of MITI. Membership in the JBA is voluntary. JBA had 108 formal members and 46 'supporting' members in 1998. Formal members are members of six turtle shell industry associations. Supporting members are mainly individual craftsmen and retailers. Most JBA members have registered with the government, but retailers are not required to register (S. Terauchi, JBA, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 12 January 2000). The six turtle shell industry associations included in the JBA are: the Tokyo Bekko Crafting Association, the East Japan Sea Turtle Shell Association (located in Tokyo), the Tokyo Articles Fourth Division, the Nagasaki Bekko Commerce and Industry Association, the Nagasaki Bekko Ornaments Association, and the Nagasaki Hawksbill and Amber Association (Anon, 1998).

Table 1 Membership in the JBA by year and by region

Year	Region	Tokyo	Nagasaki	Osaka	Total
1992		78	56	14	148
1998		69	39	0	108

Source: S. Terauchi, JBA

The number of JBA members decreased from 148 in 1992 to 108 in 1998. The Osaka Association closed down about four years ago (S.Terauchi, JBA, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 12 January 2000).

Production values and quantities

The JBA provided production values for the domestic trade of all manufactured hawksbill products for the entire industry. These are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Industry production values for the period 1991-1996 (JPY, USD)

Year	Value in JPY	Value in USD*	Number of dealers
1991	6 678 000 000	65 470 588	290
1992	4 493 000 000	44 049 019	284
1993	2 646 000 000	25 941 176	270
1994	1 869 000 000	18 323 529	270
1995	1 993 000 000	19 539 215	250
1996	2 181 000 000	21 382 352	238

Source: S. Terauchi, JBA, 24 June 1998

* Exchange rate used was the average 1999 rate of JPY 102: USD1.

According to the JBA (1998), 53.5% of the value of worked shell products was derived from women’s accessories such as rings, necklaces, ear rings and brooches; 27.4% was derived from goods for men such as tie pins, eye-glass frames, buckles, sticks and cuff links (S. Terauchi, JBA, in litt to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 16 October 1998). Works of art such as bird carvings, frames with flower carving or decorative emblems, constituted 10.0% of the value of worked products, and traditional Japanese clothing accessories such as sash clips, ornamental hairpins, and utensils used in the traditional tea ceremony made up the remaining 9.1% (Terauchi, JBA, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 16 October 1998).

Distribution of raw shells and shell products

Raw shell plates

Prior to 1993, raw Hawksbill Turtle shell plates were imported from range states into Japan through trading companies, wholesalers, major shell product companies and/or industrial associations (Anon, 1993b). JBA members conduct auctions of raw shell plates once a month (S. Terauchi, JBA, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 12 January 2000).

The value of raw shell plates is determined by which part of the shell the plate comes from, the colour, the country of origin (range state), etc. There are three types of raw shell plate: dorsal; abdominal; and flank plates. Abdominal shell plates have a much higher value than other parts of the shell due to their amber-like colour. The price of raw shell plates ranges from JPY 30 000 per kg (USD294) to JPY150 000 per kg (USD1 470) (S.Terauchi, JBA, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 12 January 2000). The average price of raw shell from Cuba is JPY 50 000 per kg (USD490) (S.Terauchi, JBA, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 12 January 2000).

Based on the distribution network for manufactures and retailers in Nagasaki prefecture as an example, Figure 2 shows the distribution channels for raw shell materials and finished products as follows:

· Trade between manufacturers and retailers, independent manufacturers and retailers in Nagasaki and wholesalers in Tokyo;

· Trade between wholesalers in Tokyo and independent manufacturers and retailers in Nagasaki;

· Trade between wholesalers/retailers in Nagasaki and local consumers and visitors in Nagasaki (NPEDRID, 1993).

Figure 2 Distribution channels for raw shell materials and finished products

Shell products

Shell products from manufacturers and retailers in Nagasaki prefecture are purchased directly by local consumers in Nagasaki and tourists. Products are also sold to souvenir shops and hotels in Nagasaki, as well as to wholesalers in Tokyo (Anon, 1993b).

Illegal trade in E. imbricata in Japan

Seven cases of illegal trade in hawksbill shell plate were reported between 1994 and July 1999. Most of the shells seized were destroyed by the government, although some were retained for research purposes (MITI Official, in litt., to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 21 March 2000).

· In January 1994, Customs officials seized 24 kg of raw shell plates at Narita International Airport. Two individuals, a retailer and a manufacturer of hawksbill shell both from Nagasaki, had purchased the raw shell plates in the Dominican Republic and brought them via Madrid International Airport, Spain. The shell plates were hidden in their suitcases (Chiba prefecture Police Office, in litt, to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 8 February 1994).

· In March 1994, Customs officials seized 587 kg of raw shell plates at Itami Airport in Osaka. One dealer bought the shells in the Dominican Republic and illegally transferred them by air cargo with cattle horns and hooves (Mainichi Newspaper, 22 June 1994).

· In August 1995, Customs officials seized 2 701 kg of raw shell plates at Osaka Seaport. A dealer was arrested later in 1997. The trader had intended to import them illegally from Indonesia (Osaka Customs, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 11 March 1997).

· In March 1996, Customs officials seized 115 kg of raw shell plates coming from Singapore at Narita International Airport (Chiba Prefecture Police Office, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, August 1996). The shell plates were divided in pieces, packed in 5 suitcases and then transported by a courier (Nikkei Newspaper, 14 April 1996). Later, the dealer who engaged the courier was arrested. The dealer was the same individual who attempted to illegally import shell plates in March 1994.

· In August 1997, Customs officials seized 31.5 kg of raw shell plates at Kansai International Airport (Osaka). The individual, who had bought the shells in Singapore and had intended to import illegally, was arrested (Kansai Airport Customs, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 12 September 1997).

· In April 1998, Customs officials seized 119.6 kg of raw shell plates at Narita International Airport. Four people were arrested, including two Singaporeans, a bekko wholesaler from Nagasaki and his son. The main smuggler was the bekko wholesaler. He had bought the hawksbill shells in Singapore (Narita Airport Customs, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 3 June 1998).

· In September 1998, Customs officials seized 65.7 kg of raw shell plates at Nagoya Airport. Five Japanese were arrested. One of them, living in Nagasaki, had bought raw shells in Singapore, and asked the others to carry them into Japan (Nagoya Airport Customs, in litt. to TRAFFIC East Asia-Japan, 28 September 1998). According to a local newspaper, he had carried hawksbill shells into Japan more than ten times (Chunichi Newspaper, 29 September 1998).

Table 3 Summary of seizures 1994-1998 (Units = kg)

Date	Kg	Place of seizure	Country of Export
January, 1994	24	Narita International Airport	Dominican Republic
March, 1994	587	Osaka Airport	Dominican Republic
August, 1995	2 701	Osaka Seaport	Indonesia
March, 1996	115	Narita International Airport	Singapore
August, 1997	31.5	Kansai International Airport	Singapore
April, 1998	119.6	Narita International Airport	Singapore
September, 1998	65.7	Nagoya Airport	Singapore

References

Anon. (1991a). Regional Industry Development Overview. Nagasaki Prefecture Economics Division, Japan. pp 17-31

Anon. (1991b). Trade in Hawksbill Sea Turtles. The Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Japan.

Anon. (1993a). TRAFFIC Newsletter Vol.8 No.3, TRAFFIC EAST ASIA-Japan, Japan.

Anon. (1993b). Nagasaki Prefecture Product Guidebook. Nagasaki Prefecture Economics Division Regional Industry Development Section, Japan.pg.62

Anon. (1995). The Guidance of Registration Application. The Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Japan.

Anon. (1998). Bekko Association News vol. 27, The Japan Bekko Association, Japan.

Anon. (1999). Customs Tariff Schedules of Japan. Japan Tariff Association, Japan. 992pp

Anon. (2000). Bekko Craft in Japan, Japan Bekko Association, Japan.

Kamesaki, N. (1994). The Report of Japanese Threatened Species of Aquatic Wildlife. Japan Fishery Agency, Japan. pp 479-491

Kaneda, Y. (1995), Fisheries and Fishing Methods of Japan. Seizando, Japan. pp 194-200

Kaneko, Y. and Yamaoka, H. (1999). Traditional Use and Conservation of Hawksbill Turtles: From a Japanese Industry’s Perspective, Japan.

Kiyono, H. (1995).TRAFFIC Japan Newsletter vol.11 No.1, TRAFFIC EAST ASIA-Japan, Japan.

Milliken, T. and Tokunaga, H. (1987). The Japanese Sea Turtle Trade, TRAFFIC Japan, Japan. pp 10-13

Yamamoto, K. (1981). Bekko Industry Survey. Nagasaki Professional University, former Nagasaki Professional University of International Economics Prefecture University, Japan. pp 21-31

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